McInnes, I. B. & Schett, G. The pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 2205–2219 (2011).
Google Scholar
Gravallese, E. M. & Firestein, G. S. Rheumatoid arthritis—common origins, divergent mechanisms. N. Engl. J. Med. 388, 529–542 (2023).
Google Scholar
Malmström, V., Catrina, A. I. & Klareskog, L. The immunopathogenesis of seropositive rheumatoid arthritis: from triggering to targeting. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 17, 60–75 (2016).
Google Scholar
Humby, F. et al. Ectopic lymphoid structures support ongoing production of class-switched autoantibodies in rheumatoid synovium. PLoS Med. 6, 59–75 (2009).
Google Scholar
Edwards, J. C. et al. Efficacy of B-cell-targeted therapy with rituximab in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 350, 2572–2581 (2004).
Google Scholar
Buch, M. H. Defining refractory rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 77, 966–969 (2018).
Google Scholar
Rivellese, F. et al. Rituximab versus tocilizumab in rheumatoid arthritis: synovial biopsy-based biomarker analysis of the phase 4 R4RA randomized trial. Nat. Med. 28, 1256–1268 (2022).
Google Scholar
Kremer, J. M. et al. Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis by selective inhibition of T-cell activation with fusion protein CTLA4Ig. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 1907–1915 (2003).
Google Scholar
Goebeler, M. E. & Bargou, R. C. T cell-engaging therapies—BiTEs and beyond. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 17, 418–434 (2020).
Google Scholar
Kantarjian, H. et al. Blinatumomab versus chemotherapy for advanced acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 376, 836–847 (2017).
Google Scholar
Gruen, M., Bommert, K. & Bargou, R. C. T-cell-mediated lysis of B cells induced by a CD19×CD3 bispecific single-chain antibody is perforin dependent and death receptor independent. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 53, 625–632 (2004).
Google Scholar
Loffler, A. et al. A recombinant bispecific single-chain antibody, CD19×CD3, induces rapid and high lymphoma-directed cytotoxicity by unstimulated T lymphocytes. Blood 95, 2098–2103 (2000).
Google Scholar
Hoffmann, P. et al. Serial killing of tumor cells by cytotoxic T cells redirected with a CD19-/CD3-bispecific single-chain antibody construct. Int J. Cancer 115, 98–104 (2005).
Google Scholar
Offner, S., Hofmeister, R., Romaniuk, A., Kufer, P. & Baeuerle, P. A. Induction of regular cytolytic T cell synapses by bispecific single-chain antibody constructs on MHC class I-negative tumor cells. Mol. Immunol. 43, 763–771 (2006).
Google Scholar
Bargou, R. et al. Tumor regression in cancer patients by very low doses of a T cell-engaging antibody. Science 321, 974–977 (2008).
Google Scholar
Topp, M. S. et al. Targeted therapy with the T-cell-engaging antibody blinatumomab of chemotherapy-refractory minimal residual disease in B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients results in high response rate and prolonged leukemia-free survival. J. Clin. Oncol. 29, 2493–2498 (2011).
Google Scholar
Vos, K. et al. Early effects of rituximab on the synovial cell infiltrate in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 56, 772–778 (2007).
Google Scholar
Schett, G., Tanaka, Y. & Isaacs, J. D. Why remission is not enough: underlying disease mechanisms in RA that prevent cure. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 17, 135–144 (2021).
Google Scholar
Genovese, M. C. et al. Abatacept for rheumatoid arthritis refractory to tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibition. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1114–1123 (2005).
Google Scholar
Jois, R. N., Masding, A., Somerville, M., Gaffney, K. & Scott, D. G. Rituximab therapy in patients with resistant rheumatoid arthritis: real-life experience. Rheumatol. (Oxf.) 46, 980–982 (2007).
Google Scholar
Mougiakakos, D. et al. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 385, 567–569 (2021).
Google Scholar
Mackensen, A. et al. Anti-CD19 CAR T cell therapy for refractory systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat. Med. 28, 2124–2132 (2022).
Google Scholar
Bergmann, C. et al. Treatment of a patient with severe systemic sclerosis (SSc) using CD19-targeted CAR T cells. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 82, 1117–1120 (2023).
Google Scholar
Muller, F. et al. CD19-targeted CAR T cells in refractory antisynthetase syndrome. Lancet 401, 815–818 (2023).
Google Scholar
Muller, F. et al. CD19 CAR T-cell therapy in autoimmune disease – a case series with follow-up. N. Engl. J. Med. 390, 687–700 (2024).
Google Scholar
Hutchings, M. et al. Dose escalation of subcutaneous epcoritamab in patients with relapsed or refractory B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma: an open-label, phase 1/2 study. Lancet 398, 1157–1169 (2021).
Google Scholar
Moreau, P. et al. Teclistamab in relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma. N. Engl. J. Med. 387, 495–505 (2022).
Google Scholar
Lesokhin, A. M. et al. Elranatamab in relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma: phase 2 MagnetisMM-3 trial results. Nat. Med. 29, 2259–2267 (2023).
Google Scholar
Taubmann, J. et al. Chimeric antigen receptor T cell treatment: unraveling the role of B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheumatol. 76, 497–504 (2024).
Teachey, D. T. et al. Cytokine release syndrome after blinatumomab treatment related to abnormal macrophage activation and ameliorated with cytokine-directed therapy. Blood 121, 5154–5157 (2013).
Google Scholar
Aletaha, D. et al. 2010 rheumatoid arthritis classification criteria: an American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism collaborative initiative. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 69, 1580–1588 (2010).
Google Scholar
Wells, G. et al. Validation of the 28-joint Disease Activity Score (DAS28) and European League Against Rheumatism response criteria based on C-reactive protein against disease progression in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and comparison with the DAS28 based on erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 68, 954–960 (2009).
Google Scholar
D’Agostino, M. A. et al. Scoring ultrasound synovitis in rheumatoid arthritis: a EULAR-OMERACT ultrasound taskforce-Part 1: definition and development of a standardised, consensus-based scoring system. RMD Open 3, e000428 (2017).
Google Scholar
Kuwert, T., Schmidkonz, C., Prante, O., Schett, G. & Ramming, A. FAPI PET opens a new window to understanding immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. J. Nucl. Med. 63, 1136–1137 (2022).
Google Scholar
Alivernini, S. et al. Inclusion of synovial tissue-derived characteristics in a nomogram for the prediction of treatment response in treatment-naive rheumatoid arthritis patients. Arthritis Rheumatol. 73, 1601–1613 (2021).
Google Scholar
Krenn, V. et al. Synovitis score: discrimination between chronic low-grade and high-grade synovitis. Histopathology 49, 358–364 (2006).
Google Scholar
